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Evolution
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- evolution, theory in biology postulating that the various types of plants, animals, and other living things on Earth have their origin in other preexisting types and that the distinguishable differences are due to modifications in successive generations.
www.britannica.com/science/evolution-scientific-theoryEvolution | Definition, History, Types, & Examples | Britannica
Oct 21, 2024 · What is biology? Why is biology important? Where do biology graduates work? biology, study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all the physicochemical aspects of life.
- The Theory of Evolution
Biology - Evolution, Natural Selection, Adaptation: As...
- Biology
Biology - Evolution, Genetics, Classification: There are...
- Kids
Biology is the study of living things. A biologist is a...
- The Discovery of Cells
Biology - Cell Discovery, Microscopy, Histology: Of the five...
- Aristotelian Concepts
Biology - Aristotle, Organisms, Cells: Around the middle of...
- Advances to The 20th Century
Biology - Evolution, Genetics, Microbiology:...
- Cytology
Cytology, the study of cells as fundamental units of living...
- Biophysics
Biophysics and the intimately related subject molecular...
- The Theory of Evolution
- Overview
- Spontaneous generation
- The death of spontaneous generation
- The origin of primordial life
If a species can develop only from a preexisting species, then how did life originate? Among the many philosophical and religious ideas advanced to answer that question, one of the most popular was the theory of spontaneous generation, according to which, as already mentioned, living organisms could originate from nonliving matter. With the increasing tempo of discovery during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, investigators began to examine more critically the Greek belief that flies and other small animals arose from the mud at the bottom of streams and ponds by spontaneous generation. Then, when Harvey announced his biological dictum ex ovo omnia (“everything comes from the egg”), it appeared that he had solved the problem, at least insofar as it pertained to flowering plants and the higher animals, all of which develop from an egg. But Leeuwenhoek’s subsequent disquieting discovery of animalcules demonstrated the existence of a densely populated but previously invisible world of organisms that had to be explained.
The Italian physician and poet Francesco Redi was one of the first to question the spontaneous origin of living things. Having observed the development of maggots and flies on decaying meat, Redi in 1668 devised a number of experiments, all pointing to the same conclusion: if flies are excluded from rotten meat, maggots do not develop. On meat exposed to air, however, eggs laid by flies develop into maggots. Nonetheless, in 1745 support for spontaneous generation was renewed with the publication of An Account of Some New Microscopical Discoveries by the English naturalist and Roman Catholic divine John Turberville Needham. Needham found that large numbers of organisms subsequently developed in prepared infusions of many different substances that had been exposed to intense heat in sealed tubes for 30 minutes. Assuming that such heat treatment must have killed any previous organisms, Needham explained the presence of the new population on the grounds of spontaneous generation. The experiments appeared irrefutable until the Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani repeated them and obtained conflicting results. He published his findings around 1775, claiming that Needham had not heated his tubes long enough, nor had he sealed them in a satisfactory manner. Although Spallanzani’s results should have been convincing, Needham had the support of the influential French naturalist Buffon; hence, the matter of spontaneous generation remained unresolved.
If a species can develop only from a preexisting species, then how did life originate? Among the many philosophical and religious ideas advanced to answer that question, one of the most popular was the theory of spontaneous generation, according to which, as already mentioned, living organisms could originate from nonliving matter. With the increasing tempo of discovery during the 17th and 18th centuries, however, investigators began to examine more critically the Greek belief that flies and other small animals arose from the mud at the bottom of streams and ponds by spontaneous generation. Then, when Harvey announced his biological dictum ex ovo omnia (“everything comes from the egg”), it appeared that he had solved the problem, at least insofar as it pertained to flowering plants and the higher animals, all of which develop from an egg. But Leeuwenhoek’s subsequent disquieting discovery of animalcules demonstrated the existence of a densely populated but previously invisible world of organisms that had to be explained.
The Italian physician and poet Francesco Redi was one of the first to question the spontaneous origin of living things. Having observed the development of maggots and flies on decaying meat, Redi in 1668 devised a number of experiments, all pointing to the same conclusion: if flies are excluded from rotten meat, maggots do not develop. On meat exposed to air, however, eggs laid by flies develop into maggots. Nonetheless, in 1745 support for spontaneous generation was renewed with the publication of An Account of Some New Microscopical Discoveries by the English naturalist and Roman Catholic divine John Turberville Needham. Needham found that large numbers of organisms subsequently developed in prepared infusions of many different substances that had been exposed to intense heat in sealed tubes for 30 minutes. Assuming that such heat treatment must have killed any previous organisms, Needham explained the presence of the new population on the grounds of spontaneous generation. The experiments appeared irrefutable until the Italian physiologist Lazzaro Spallanzani repeated them and obtained conflicting results. He published his findings around 1775, claiming that Needham had not heated his tubes long enough, nor had he sealed them in a satisfactory manner. Although Spallanzani’s results should have been convincing, Needham had the support of the influential French naturalist Buffon; hence, the matter of spontaneous generation remained unresolved.
After a number of further investigations had failed to solve the problem, the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize for research that would “throw new light on the question of spontaneous generation.” In response to that challenge, Louis Pasteur, who at that time was a chemist, subjected flasks containing a sugared yeast solution to a variety of conditions. Pasteur was able to demonstrate conclusively that any microorganisms that developed in suitable media came from microorganisms in the air, not from the air itself, as Needham had suggested. Support for Pasteur’s findings came in 1876 from the English physicist John Tyndall, who devised an apparatus to demonstrate that air had the ability to carry particulate matter. Because such matter in air reflects light when the air is illuminated under special conditions, Tyndall’s apparatus could be used to indicate when air was pure. Tyndall found that no organisms were produced when pure air was introduced into media capable of supporting the growth of microorganisms. It was those results, together with Pasteur’s findings, that put an end to the doctrine of spontaneous generation.
When Pasteur later showed that parent microorganisms generate only their own kind, he thereby established the study of microbiology. Moreover, he not only succeeded in convincing the scientific world that microbes are living creatures, which come from preexisting forms, but also showed them to be an immense and varied component of the organic world, a concept that was to have important implications for the science of ecology. Further, by isolating various species of bacteria and yeasts in different chemical media, Pasteur was able to demonstrate that they brought about chemical change in a characteristic and predictable way, thus making a unique contribution to the study of fermentation and to biochemistry.
In the 1920s the Russian biochemist Aleksandr Oparin and other scientists suggested that life may have come from nonliving matter under conditions that existed on primitive Earth, when the atmosphere consisted of the gases methane, ammonia, water vapour, and hydrogen. According to that concept, energy supplied by electrical storms and ultraviolet light may have broken down the atmospheric gases into their constituent elements, and organic molecules may have been formed when the elements recombined.
Some of those ideas have been verified by advances in geochemistry and molecular genetics; experimental efforts have succeeded in producing amino acids and proteinoids (primitive protein compounds) from gases that may have been present on Earth at its inception, and amino acids have been detected in rocks that are more than three billion years old. With improved techniques it may be possible to produce precursors of or actual self-replicating living matter from nonliving substances. But whether it is possible to create the actual living heterotrophic forms from which autotrophs supposedly developed remains to be seen.
The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to Ayurveda, ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle ...
- Simple organic molecules were formed. Simple organic molecules, similar to the nucleotide shown below, are the building blocks of life and must have been involved in its origin.
- Replicating molecules evolved and began to undergo natural selection. All living things reproduce, copying their genetic material and passing it on to their offspring.
- Replicating molecules became enclosed within a cell membrane. The evolution of a membrane surrounding the genetic material provided two huge advantages: the products of the genetic material could be kept close by and the internal environment of this proto-cell could be different than the external environment.
- Some cells began to evolve modern metabolic processes and out-competed those with older forms of metabolism. Up until this point, life had probably relied on RNA for most jobs (as described in Step 2 above).
Many lines of evidence help illuminate the origin of life: ancient fossils, radiometric dating, the phylogenetics and chemistry of modern organisms, and even experiments. However, since new evidence is constantly being discovered, hypotheses about how life originated may change or be modified.
There are, at present, four primary sources of information: (1) the record of the early solar system, as preserved in comets or carbonaceous chondrites and on the surfaces of Mars or the Moon; (2) the record of terrestrial rocks—geology; (3) the record of ancient microorganisms and their physiological activities—paleobiology; and (4) the ...
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Oct 25, 2024 · Life - Origin, Evolution, Abiogenesis: Perhaps the most fundamental and at the same time the least understood biological problem is the origin of life. It is central to many scientific and philosophical problems and to any consideration of extraterrestrial life.
