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neering and art of construction. In addition a variety of clays and wood augmented stone materials and remain a significant part of our materials technology. # Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 L.E. Murr, Handbook of Materials Structures, Properties, Processing and Performance, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01815-7_1 3
This aims to conduct a chronological analysis, tracing the development of materials used in civil engineering from ancient construction to the ever-evolving trends in the 21st century. The historical evolution of construction materials involves an in-depth discussion of materials such as mud, wood, stones, and mortar used in ancient construction.
Metal alloys first discovered in the Bronze Age (Fig. 1) influenced the development of an enormous range of metal combinations which attest to essentially all of the engineering achievements of modern times, including atomic energy, space flight, air travel, communications systems and microelectronic devices, and every modern structural and stainless steel building, vessel, or commodity item ...
- lemurr@utep.edu
- 1 Chronological development
- Neolithic buildings in Skara Brae, Skara Brae is listed as a
- 1.2 Gallery of Neolithic tools
- 3.1 Construction in ancient Mesopotamia
- 3.1.1 Materials
- 3.2.1 Materials
- 3.3 Construction in ancient Greece
- 3.4.1 Materials
- 3.4.2 Organisation of labour
- 3.5.1 Gallery of Chinese construction methods
- 4.3 Labour
- 4.5 Outstanding technical achievements
- 5 Construction in the Renaissance
- 5.1 Materials
- 5.2 Design
- 5.3 Labour
- 5.4 Technical advances
- 6 Construction in the seventeenth century
- 6.1 Materials and tools
- 6.2 Methods
- 7 Construction in the eighteenth century
- 7.1 Materials
- 11 Early writers on construction history
- 12 Nineteenth century studies on construction history
- 14 See also
The history of construction is a complex subject encom-passing the history of building materials, the history of engineering, the history of building techniques, economic and social history of builders and workmen, the history of construction machinery and temporary works, etc. Each of these has a complex literature devoted to it.
UNESCO world heritage site Neolithic, also known as the old Stone Age, was a time pe-riod roughly from 9000 BC to 5000 BC named because it was the last period of the age before wood working began. The tools available were made from natural materials in-cluding bone, antler, hide, stone, wood, grasses, animal fibers, and the use of water. These tool...
Man using a hand axe Neolithic stone axe with a wooden handle. Found at Ehenside Tarn, now in the British Museum stone adze not from the neolithic period but sim-ilar in concept. Attribution: Brooklyn Museum sickle for harvesting crops and thatching materi-als. Various bone tools from China Bone hammer from the Linear Pottery Culture chisel made of...
The earliest large-scale buildings for which evidence sur-vives have been found in ancient Mesopotamia. The smaller dwellings only survive in traces of foundations, but the later civilisations built very sizeable structures in the forms of palaces, temples and ziggurats and took par-ticular care to build them out of materials that last, which has e...
The chief building material was the mud-brick, formed in wooden moulds similar to those used to make adobe bricks. Bricks varied widely in size and format from small bricks that could be lifted in one hand to ones as big as large paving slabs. Rectangular and square bricks were both common. They were laid in virtually every bonding pattern imaginab...
Adobe (sun-baked mud brick) construction was used for ancillary buildings and normal houses in ancient times and is still commonly used in rural Egypt. The hot, dry climate was ideal for mud-brick, which tends to wash away in the rain. The Ramesseum in Thebes, Egypt (Luxor) provides one of the finest examples of mud brick construction. Extensive st...
Further information: Architecture of ancient Greece, List of ancient architectural records and List of ancient roofs The ancient Greeks, like the Egyptians and the An illustration showing masonry techniques of ancient Greece and Rome. Mesopotamians, tended to build most of their common buildings out of mud brick, leaving no record behind them. Howe...
The great Roman development in building materials was the use of hydraulic lime mortar called Roman cement. Previous cultures had used lime mortars but by adding volcanic ash called a pozzolana the mortar would harden under water. This provided them with a strong mate-rial for bulk walling. They used brick or stone to build the outer skins of the w...
The Romans had trade guilds. Most construction was done by slaves or freed men. The use of slave labour undoubtedly cut costs and was one of the reasons for the scale of some of the structures. The Romans placed a considerable emphasis in building their buildings ex-tremely fast, usually within two years. For very large structures the only way this...
The Far East used a different method of sawing logs than the West’s method of pit-sawing with a saw pit: The concept is the same but as shown here the log is angled and no pit is used.
In general, medieval buildings were built by paid workers. Unskilled work was done by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. It is not clear how many women were members of a guild holding a monopoly on a partic-ular trade in a defined area (usually within the town walls). Towns...
The scale of fortifications and castle building in the Mid-dle Ages was remarkable, but the outstanding buildings of the period were the Gothic cathedrals with thin ma-sonry vaults and walls of glass. Outstanding examples are: Beauvais Cathedral, Chartres Cathedral, King’s Col-lege Chapel and Notre Dame, Paris.
Further information: Renaissance Architecture The Renaissance in Italy, the invention of moveable type and the Reformation changed the character of building. The rediscovery of Vitruvius had a strong influence. Dur-ing the Middle Ages buildings were designed by the peo-ple that built them. The master mason and master car-penters learnt their trades...
The major breakthroughs in this period were to do with the technology of conversion. Water mills in most of western Europe were used to saw timber and convert trees into planks. Bricks were used in ever increasing quantities. In Italy the brickmakers were organised into guilds although the kilns were mostly in rural areas be-cause of the risk of fi...
The rebirth of the idea of an architect in the Renaissance radically changed the nature of building design. The Re-naissance reintroduced the classical style of architecture. Leon Battista Alberti’s treatise on architecture raised the subject to a new level, defining architecture as something worthy of study by the aristocracy. Previously it was vi...
The structure of the dome of Florence cathedral , showing the double skin structure. Labour in the Renaissance was much the same as in the Middle Ages: buildings were built by paid work-ers. Unskilled work was done by labourers paid by the day. Skilled craftsmen served apprenticeships or learned their trade from their parents. Craftsmen were orga-n...
The wish to return to classical architecture created prob-lems for the Renaissance buildings. The builders did not use concrete and thus comparable vaults and domes had to be replicated in brick or stone. The greatest technical feats were undoubtedly in these areas. The first major breakthrough was Brunelleschi’s project for the dome of Santa Maria...
The seventeenth century saw the birth of modern science which would have profound effects on building construc-tion in the centuries to come. The major breakthroughs were towards the end of the century when architect-engineers began to use experimental science to inform the form of their buildings. However it was not until the eighteenth century th...
The major breakthrough in this period was in the manu-facture of glass, with the first cast plate glass being devel-oped in France. Iron was increasingly employed in struc-tures. Christopher Wren used iron hangers to suspend floor beams at Hampton Court Palace, and iron rods to repair Salisbury Cathedral and strengthen the dome of St Paul’s Cathedr...
Despite the birth of experimental science, the methods of construction in this period remained largely medieval. The same types of crane that had been used in previous centuries were being still being employed. Flying scaf-folds were employed at St Paul’s Cathedral, England and in the dome of St Peters, Rome, but otherwise the same types of timber ...
The eighteenth century saw the development of many the ideas that had been born in the late seventeenth cen-tury. The architects and engineers became increasingly professionalised. Experimental science and mathemati-cal methods became increasingly sophisticated and em-ployed in buildings. At the same time the birth of the industrial revolution saw ...
The major breakthroughs in this period were in the use of iron (both cast and wrought). Iron columns had been used in Wren’s designs for the House of Commons and were used in several early eighteenth-century churches in Lon-don, but these supported only galleries. In the second half of the eighteenth century the decreasing costs of iron pro-duction...
The earliest surviving book detailing historical building techniques is the treatise of the Roman author, Vitruvius, but his approach was neither scholarly nor systematic. Much later, in the Renaissance, Vasari mentions Filippo Brunelleschi's interest in researching Roman building techniques, although if he wrote anything on the subject it does not...
In the nineteenth century, lecturers increasingly illus-trated their lectures with images of building techniques used in the past and these type of images increasingly appeared in construction text books, such as Rondelet’s. The greatest advances however were made by English and French (and later German) architects attempting to un-derstand, record...
History of architecture Timeline of architecture History of water supply and sanitation Burned house horizon
Aluminum is not found in its natural state. Nonmagnetic, nonlustrous, white soft metal with a specific gravity of 2.70 (compared with steel at 7.87). Aluminum is second to steel in commercial production. Building construction products account for almost one third of the total production of aluminum.
Sep 1, 2016 · Chapter 38: Metals and alloys: an introduction. This chapter introduces metals and alloys as a type of construction material, including discussions of their background and use in construction, their mechanical and physical properties, microstructural factors that influence properties, and recycling and sustainability issues associated with ...
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And to effectively shed water and snow, the shape was likewise a fairly steep pitch. With the advance of industrial society into Manitoba by the 1870s, these basic materials gave way to manufactured building materials: milled lumber, brick, concrete block, glass block and formed metal. And while the basic principles involved in their ...
