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matter what method of research is employed: rigor and ethics.As a concept, rigor is perhaps best thought of in terms of the quality of the research process; a more rigorous research process will result in findings that have more integrity, and that are more trustworthy, valid, plausible and credible. For qualitative research, there are 10 ...
Dec 9, 2020 · While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ...
- Lesley Eleanor Tomaszewski, Jill Zarestky, Elsa Gonzalez
- 2020
- Characteristics of Qualitative Research
- Why Conduct Qualitative Research?
- Collecting Qualitative Data
- Qualitative Data Analysis Methods
- Preventing Bias in Qualitative Research
- Establishing Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research
- Advantages
- Limitations
- References
Reality is socially constructed
Qualitative research aims to understand how participants make meaning of their experiences – individually or in social contexts. It assumes there is no objective realityand that the social world is interpreted (Yilmaz, 2013).
The primacy of subject matter
The primary aim of qualitative research is to understand the perspectives, experiences, and beliefs of individuals who have experienced the phenomenon selected for research rather than the average experiences of groups of people (Minichiello, 1990).
Variables are complex, interwoven, and difficult to measure
Factors such as experiences, behaviors, and attitudes are complex and interwoven, so they cannot be reduced to isolated variables, making them difficult to measure quantitatively. However, a qualitative approach enables participants to describe what, why, or how they were thinking/ feeling during a phenomenon being studied (Yilmaz, 2013).
In order to gain a deeper understanding of how people experience the world, individuals are studied in their natural setting. This enables the researcher to understand a phenomenon close to how participants experience it. Qualitative research allows researchers to gain an in-depth understanding, which is difficult to attain using quantitative metho...
Observations
This method involves watching and recording phenomena as they occur in nature. Observationcan be divided into two types: participant and non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher actively participates in the situation/events being observed. In non-participant observation, the researcher is not an active part of the observation and tries not to influence the behaviors they are observing (Busetto et al., 2020). Observations can be covert (participants are unaware t...
Interviews
Interviewsgive researchers a window into the world of a participant by seeking their account of an event, situation, or phenomenon. They are usually conducted on a one-to-one basis and can be distinguished according to the level at which they are structured (Punch, 2013). Structured interviews involve predetermined questions and sequences to ensure replicability and comparability. However, they are unable to explore emerging issues. Informal interviews consist of spontaneous, casual conversat...
Focus groups
Similar to interviews, focus groupselicit a rich and detailed account of an experience. However, focus groups are more dynamic since participants with shared characteristics construct this account together (Denny & Weckesser, 2022). A shared narrative is built between participants to capture a group experience shaped by a shared context. The researcher takes on the role of a moderator, who will establish ground rules and guide the discussion by following a topic guide to focus the group discu...
Different methods can be used for analyzing qualitative data. The researcher chooses based on the objectives of their study. The researcher plays a key role in the interpretation of data, making decisions about the coding, theming, decontextualizing, and recontextualizing of data (Starks & Trinidad, 2007).
To evaluate qualitative studies, the CASP (Critical Appraisal Skills Programme) checklist for qualitative studies can be used to ensure all aspects of a study have been considered (CASP, 2018). The quality of research can be enhanced and assessed using criteria such as checklists, reflexivity, co-coding, and member-checking.
Credibility in Qualitative Research
Credibility refers to how accurately the results represent the reality and viewpoints of the participants. To establish credibility in research, participants’ views and the researcher’s representation of their views need to align (Tobin & Begley, 2004). To increase the credibility of findings, researchers may use data source triangulation, investigator triangulation, peer debriefing, or member checking (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Transferability in Qualitative Research
Transferability refers to how generalizable the findings are: whether the findings may be applied to another context, setting, or group (Tobin & Begley, 2004). Transferability can be enhanced by giving thorough and in-depth descriptions of the research setting, sample, and methods (Nowell et al., 2017).
Dependability in Qualitative Research
Dependability is the extent to which the study could be replicated under similar conditions and the findings would be consistent. Researchers can establish dependability using methods such as audit trails so readers can see the research process is logical and traceable (Koch, 1994).
Discovery of unexpected data
Open-ended questions in qualitative research mean the researcher can probe an interview topic and enable the participant to elaborate on responses in an unrestricted manner. This allows unexpected data to emerge, which can lead to further research into that topic.
Flexibility
Data collection and analysis can be modified and adapted to take the research in a different direction if new ideas or patterns emerge in the data. This enables researchers to investigate new opportunities while firmly maintaining their research goals.
Naturalistic settings
The behaviors of participants are recorded in real-world settings. Studies that use real-world settings have high ecological validity since participants behave more authentically.
Time-consuming
Qualitative research results in large amounts of data which often need to be transcribed and analyzed manually. Even when software is used, transcription can be inaccurate, and using software for analysis can result in many codes which need to be condensed into themes.
Subjectivity
The researcher has an integral role in collecting and interpreting qualitative data. Therefore, the conclusions reached are from their perspective and experience. Consequently, interpretations of data from another researcher may vary greatly.
Limited generalizability
The aim of qualitative research is to provide a detailed, contextualized understanding of an aspect of the human experience from a relatively small sample size. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, conclusions drawn cannot be generalized to the wider population since data may be biased or unrepresentative. Therefore, results are only applicable to a small group of the population.
Boeije, H. (2014). Analysis in qualitative research. Sage. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology,3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Brooks, J., McCluskey, S., Turley, E., & King, N. (2014). The utility of template analysis in qualitative psychology research. Qu...
Jul 25, 2024 · Qualitative research prioritizes the specific circumstances and settings in which phenomena occur, ensuring findings are grounded in real-world contexts. In studying consumer behavior, this means considering the macro (e.g. PESTEL) and micro (e.g. brands, intermediaries, and retailers) factors influencing choices.
- Weng Marc Lim
Jan 2, 2018 · Summary. Qualitative research has a rich tradition in the study of human social behaviour and cultures. Its general aim is to develop concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in, wherever possible, natural rather than experimental settings, to gain an understanding of the experiences, perceptions and/or behaviours of individuals ...
- Steven J. Agius
- 2013
Jun 19, 2020 · Revised on September 5, 2024. Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which ...
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Abstract. This paper aims to provide an overview of the use and assessment of qualitative research methods in the health sciences. Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed, assessing complex multi-component interventions ...
